The following links, compiled by librarian Sonia Alcantara, will allow you access to some of the most important documents in Latino American history, from the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to the Bracero Agreement of 1942, from presidential decrees to speeches by Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta, from immigration legislation to Supreme Court decisions.
The links are divided into the following categories: “Quotations”; “Speeches”; “Letters, Articles, and Excerpts”; “Laws, Legal Cases, and Treaties”; and “Maps.”
The first category on the list, “Quotations,” consists of a book-length collection of short quotations from notable Latinos titled Contemporary Hispanic Quotations. Once you click on the title, you can either navigate the work page-by-page, quote-by-quote, or use the “Table of Contents” at the right-hand side of the screen to focus on an area of interest, similar to an e-book experience. “Speeches”; “Letters, Articles, and Excerpts”; “Laws, Legal Cases, and Treaties”; and “Maps” contain links to documents along with summaries of the documents’ contents and their historic context.
Please note that this is only a selected list and represents only a small portion of the primary documents contained within the Latino American Experience. You may also search for particular documents, types of documents, or a particular speaker and author by using Advanced Search and checking the “Primary Documents” box under “Search Filters.”
Quotations
Contemporary Hispanic Quotations, Daniel E. Stanton and Edward F. Stanton
Speeches
Monroe Doctrine, December 2, 1823
President James Monroe delivered this speech to Congress. This speech was prompted by the fear that the crumbling Spanish empire was attempting to regain a foothold in the Americas. In it, he states that the United States will not tolerate European intervention in the Western Hemisphere. He ascribes to the U.S. the role of protecting its neighbors. The Monroe Doctrine would create justification for U.S. involvement in the internal matters of Mexico, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, ultimately changing the landscape of the United States.
Roosevelt Corollary, December 6, 1904
This was a speech given by President Theodore Roosevelt in response to a European naval blockade of Venezuela. It was meant as an addendum to the Monroe Doctrine of 1823. In it, Roosevelt declares the moral superiority of the United States over certain Latin American countries where our intervention is necessary: “Chronic wrongdoing, or an impotence which results in a general loosening of the ties of civilized society, may … ultimately require intervention.” The Roosevelt Corollary defined U.S. foreign policy for years to come, leading to U.S. involvement in and disruption of Latin American governments, such as the Dominican Republic, Panama, Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Colombia.
Speech by Dolores Huerta, May 10, 1969
Huerta founded the United Farm Workers alongside Cesar Chavez. She was a pioneer in the Chicano movement, when Mexican Americans and other Latinos were fighting for their civil rights. In this speech, she proclaimed International Boycott Day against the California grape industry, in protest over unfair wages for Mexican workers.
Speech by Cesar Chavez, March 1989
Chavez fought tirelessly for the rights of farm workers from the 1950s until his death in 1993. Inspired by Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Chavez effectively used nonviolent resistance to gain better wages and safer working conditions for farm workers. This speech was delivered after a 36-day hunger strike to protest the pesticide poisoning of grape farm workers.
Press Conference by Attorney General Janet Reno explaining Cuban-U.S. Migration Accords, May 2, 1995
The United States was concerned about the mass exodus of Cubans on makeshift rafts bound for American shores. In response to this, the United States and Cuba reached agreements in September 1994 and May 1995 that would stem the tide of Cuban immigrants. According to the agreements, the United States would accept 20,000 Cubans a year who legally apply for refugee status. Others intercepted at sea by the U.S. Coast Guard would be sent back to Cuba. Those who reached land would be able to apply for residency after a year according to the Cuban Adjustment Act of 1966. This “Wet Foot/Dry Foot” policy has brought thousands of Cubans to the United States, where most have settled in Florida and New Jersey.
Press Conference by Attorney General Janet Reno on the Elian Gonzalez Standoff, March 30, 2000
Elian Gonzalez, a Cuban boy, was rescued off the Florida coast on Thanksgiving Day in 1999. He was on a raft with twelve other people, fleeing Castro’s Cuba. His mother and nine others died on the voyage. Elian’s rescue sparked an international custody dispute. While Elian’s father pleaded to have him returned to Cuba, his Miami relatives waged an unsuccessful legal battle for Elian to stay in this country. In this speech, Reno explains the position of the Clinton administration, which was supportive of Elian’s father and his parental rights. On April 22, 2000, Elian would be taken away from his Miami relatives by armed federal agents in a predawn raid.
Address by President George W. Bush to the Nation on Immigration Reform, May 15, 2006
President Bush emphasized the limited control the United States has over its border with Mexico, and that the flow of illegal immigration must be stemmed. He outlined his plan for enforcing the border, including the addition of 6,000 Border Patrol agents over the next two years and the building of high-wire fences. President Bush pledged the abandonment of the “catch and release” policy, whereby illegal immigrants who were caught were released into American society and told to return at a later date for an extradition court hearing. In addition, President Bush expressed his opposition to an amnesty program for illegal immigrants living in the United States.
Letters, Articles, and Excerpts
“Annexation” by John O’Sullivan, July/August 1845
This editorial appeared in the United States Democratic Review. It was the impetus behind the U.S. annexation of Mexican lands. In arguing for the annexation of the newly independent Texas into the United States, O’Sullivan coined the phrase “manifest destiny,” which emphasized the moral superiority of American democracy and justified U.S. expansionist zeal.
“The Californians” by Walter M. Fisher, 1876
This English writer lived in California during the 1870s for four years. He devotes an entire chapter of his memoirs to Hispanic Californians. He describes the californios as noble, proud, and peaceful. In contrast, he characterizes the invading Americans as dirty ruffians who are disrespectful and avaricious.
“Old Californian Days” by James Steele, 1889
In a chapter of his book, Old Californian Days, titled “The People of the Adobe,” Steele affectionately describes Mexican peasants and the life of vaqueros (cowboys). He describes the simplicity of their pastoral lives and the sturdiness of their adobe houses.
“Ranch and Mission Days in Alta, California” by Guadalupe Vallejo, 1890
Written by the nephew of Mariano Vallejo, an influential californio, Guadalupe Vallejo reminisces about the life of Spanish-speaking Mexicans in California before Anglo-Americans arrived in 1840. Vallejo talks about the life on Spanish Missions and ranchos. With bittersweet nostalgia, Vallejo praises how carefully the Spanish had cultivated California, and how generous and welcoming they were to Anglos. In turn, the Anglo-Americans took advantage of the californios’ hospitality, destroying much that they had accomplished and stealing their lands and cattle.
Aims and Purposes of League of United Latin American Citizens, 1929
League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) is the oldest and most influential Hispanic organization in the United States. Initially it was a vehicle for middle-class Mexicans, but it has evolved into the advocacy group for Latinos of all national backgrounds and economic classes. Since its inception on February 17, 1929, LULAC has been instrumental in championing civil rights for Latinos. This document is a list of the missions and goals of the organization when it was newly formed.
U.S. Latinos & Latinas World War II Oral History Project
This project of the University of Texas at Austin contains hundreds of narratives of Hispanics. Including original photos, the narratives recount the experiences of Latino soldiers who volunteered or were drafted to serve in World War II. Puerto Ricans, who had been made U.S. citizens in 1917, were eligible for the draft. Thousands joined the ranks of Mexican Americans, who were also eligible for the draft since the passage of the Nationalization Act of 1940. In addition to the stories of soldiers, there are also numerous narratives of Latinos who describe the discrimination they faced in the United States during that time period.
Laws, Legal Cases, and Treaties
Adams-Onis Treaty (a.k.a. Transcontinental Treaty), February 22, 1821
In this treaty, the United States bought Florida from Spain for $5 million. This is the first time since the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 that Spanish-speaking people were brought under the jurisdiction of the United States. It was the culmination of the agitating efforts of Anglo-American settlers in Florida who were unhappy with the large Native American population (who often harbored fugitive slaves from neighboring U.S. states). In addition, the Anglo-American settlers saw opportunities for speculating and wanted to wrest control of Florida away from Spain. U.S. forces led by General Andrew Jackson invaded Florida several times over a period of about five years. Spain, wearied by its skirmishes with other independence-seeking colonies, relented and sold Florida to the United States. In turn, the United States renounced any claims on other Spanish lands, including Texas.
Plan de Iguala, February 24, 1821
This declaration ended the Mexican War of Independence against Spain, which had begun on September 16, 1810. The war was ignited by the Spanish mistreatment of the indigenous, the mestizos (people of mixed blood), and the criollos (the white children of Spaniards born in the New World). The document ensured the equal rights of Mexican people regardless of birthplace or race, and established the eminence of the Roman Catholic Church. Soon after Mexican independence, Anglo-American settlers moved to Mexican territories seeking opportunities for commerce with Spanish-speaking Mexicans, which included parts of today’s southwest: Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. This link provides access to transcripts of the Plan de Iquala in Spanish and English, as well as other key documents in the history of Mexican independence.
Guerrero Decree, 1829
Anglo-Americans were settling in Mexican-owned Texas by the thousands. This, coupled with the United States’ obvious interest in acquiring Texas, made Mexican leaders nervous. As a response to this, Mexico abolished slavery. The prohibition of slavery would economically cripple Anglo-Americans in Texas, who owned nearly all of the slaves in Mexico. By setting free the approximately 1,100 slaves in Texas who were owned by Anglo-Americans, the Guerrero Decree would slow the settling of Anglo-Americans on Mexican soil. Texans were eventually exempted from this law. Text (Embedded within larger document): “The President of the United States of Mexico, know ye: That desiring to celebrate in the year of 1829 the anniversary of our independence with an act of justice and national beneficence, which might result in the benefit and support of a good, so highly to be appreciated, which might cement more and more the public tranquility, which might reinstate an unfortunate part of its inhabitants in the sacred rights which nature gave them, and which the nation protects by wise and just laws, in conformance with the 30th article of the constitutive act, in which the use of extraordinary powers are ceded to me, I have thought it proper to decree:
1st. Slavery is abolished in the republic.
2nd. Consequently, those who have been until now considered slaves are free.
3rd. When the circumstances of the treasury may permit, the owners of the slaves will be indemnified in the mode that the laws may provide. And in order that every part of this decree may be fully complied with, let it be printed, published, and circulated. Given at the Federal Palace of Mexico, the 15th of September, 1829. Vicente Guerrero To José María Bocanegra.”
Bustamente Decree of 1830 (a.k.a. Law of April 6, 1830) (PDF document)
By the time Mexico passed this law, Anglo-American settlers far outnumbered Spanish-speaking Mexicans in Texas. The Mexicans had hoped to drastically reduce the numbers of Anglo-Americans by the passage of this law, which explicitly prohibited U.S. citizens from immigrating to Texas. In an attempt to change the ethnic demographic of Texas, the law also offered economic incentives to Mexicans who wanted to settle in Texas. In reality, few Mexicans actually moved to Texas after the passage of this law, and its unsuccessful enforcement only increased tensions between Anglo- and Mexican-Texans. This law fueled the subsequent Texas War of Independence in 1836. The crushing defeat of Mexico at the Battle of the Alamo planted the seeds of prejudice against Mexican-Texans, even though many had been there for generations. Many Mexican-Texans were forced off their property as a result of Mexico’s defeat.
Treaty of Cahuenga (a.k.a. Cahuenga Capitulation), 1847
Before the influx of Anglo-Americans, California was populated by wealthy californio families who made fortunes raising cattle on large ranchos. In the 1840s, Anglos started settling in California via the Oregon Trail. They were disdainful toward Mexican rule and the californios. The Anglo-Americans believed in Manifest Destiny and they claimed California for the United States. Conflict broke out between the two Californian factions around the same time that war was waging between the United States and Mexico. The treaty established a cease-fire between californios and Anglo settlers, and both sides promised not to become involved in the Mexican War.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; February 2, 1848
This treaty ended the Mexican War. Under the treaty, the United States annexed more than 500,000 square miles of land – nearly half the land area of Mexico. Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah were ceded to the United States. The treaty gave the 116,000 Spanish-speaking Mexicans living in the newly acquired areas one year to decide whether they wanted to stay in what was now the United States or move south so as to retain Mexican citizenship. While some Mexicans left, the majority chose to stay in the United States. Even though the Treaty gave remaining Mexicans the right to retain ownership of their property, many Mexicans living on the choicest properties were unjustly ousted by Anglo-Americans.
California Land Act, March 3, 1851
Californio rancheros lost acres of land, much of which had been owned for generations, to thousands of Anglo-American squatters who had been attracted by California’s Gold Rush. This law allowed californios to provide the U.S. courts with documentation proving that they owned the disputed lands. However, because of Mexican tradition whereby land grants were not recorded on paper and contracts were solidified by a handshake and a verbal promise, californios ended up losing nearly all of their lands. Anglo-Americans were then able to purchase land cheaply and wealthy californio families were financially devastated.
Gadsden Purchase Treaty, December 30, 1853
Mexico signed this treaty to avoid another war with the United States. The treaty resolved a few small territorial disputes between both countries. In addition, the United States purchased land in southern Arizona and New Mexico along the Gila River for $10 million. The United States had plans to use the land to build a transcontinental railroad line that would connect the West to the eastern and northern United States. Ironically, many Mexicans who had settled along the Gila River after being displaced by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo found themselves uprooted again when the United States annexed this piece of land.
The Homestead Act of 1862
This was signed into law by Abraham Lincoln after the southern states had seceded from the Union. It allowed people to claim millions of acres of public land. Ten percent of the United States’ total land area was settled by private individuals as a result of this act. Several states were open to homesteading, including the states that the United States had purchased through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Once again, many Mexicans living peaceably in these areas were forced off their lands by homesteaders.
14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, 1868
Designed to ensure citizenship and civil liberties to recently freed slaves, this landmark amendment was also important to Latinos. It states that individuals who have been born or naturalized in the United States have rights and privileges that cannot be taken away, and that these citizens deserve equal protection under the law.
Treaty of Paris, December 10, 1898
The agreement drawn up between the United States and Spain put an end to the Spanish-American War. According to the treaty, Cuba gained its independence from Spain, although the United States would occupy Cuba until 1902. In addition, the treaty formerly granted the United States ownership of Puerto Rico, as well as Guam, the Philippines, and Wake Island – the last of Spain’s remaining colonies. This marked the end of the Spanish empire and the emergence of American imperialism.
Foraker Act, April 12, 1900 (a.k.a. The Organic Act of 1900) (text in Spanish)
This legislation made Puerto Rico an unincorporated territory of the United States, but did not grant Puerto Ricans American citizenship. It opened up the possibility of migration to the United States and its territories for Puerto Ricans, and many moved to Hawaii to work on American sugar cane plantations. The Foraker Act also opened up trade between the United States and Puerto Rico, thereby increasing the United States’ access to tropical cash crops such as sugar. The Foraker Act imposed American control over the Puerto Rican government, which would be overseen by a governor appointed by the U.S. President. Puerto Ricans did not, however, have representation in the U.S. government nor did they receive voting rights.
Jones-Shafroth Act, March 2, 1917 (text in Spanish)
Many Puerto Ricans were unhappy with the Foraker Act, which gave them neither independence, semi-independence, nor statehood. The Jones-Shafroth Act sought to clarify the nebulous status of Puerto Ricans by giving them U.S. citizenship. In doing so, Puerto Ricans gained many of the rights and privileges enjoyed by U.S. citizens. However, they still could not vote for the U.S. president and they were not required to pay federal income tax. As a result of the Jones Act, migration from Puerto Rico to the United States began en masse.
Immigration Act of 1924 (a.k.a. National Origins Act)
The Immigration Acts of 1917 and 1921 excluded specific nationalities and imposed quotas on the number of immigrants from certain countries. These laws were aimed at excluding Asians and southern and eastern Europeans. The Immigration Act of 1924 tightened restrictions on immigrants, but did not specifically exclude immigrants from the Western Hemisphere. It would not be until the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that limits would be placed on immigrants from North America and Latin America. Consequently, many Mexicans fleeing economic depression and the ravages of a long civil war in Mexico migrated to the United States after this act was passed. The United States needed cheap labor in manufacturing, agriculture, and railroad building that the Mexicans willingly supplied. More often than not, Mexicans entered the United States with no questions asked.
Bracero Agreement, August 4, 1942
The Bracero Program was in effect from 1942 to 1947, and again from 1948 to 1964. It went into effect as the United States entered World War II and cheap agricultural laborers were in short supply. This agreement was negotiated by the Mexican government on behalf of its citizens. The agreement stipulated that temporary Mexican farm workers would be paid a fair wage and that they would be treated humanely. The program ended in 1947 after World War II ended, but was brought back when farm owners complained that they needed cheap Mexican labor to stay in business. The Bracero Program officially ended in 1964 after many U.S. citizens grew uneasy about the large number of documented (and undocumented) braceros crossing the U.S. border. During the course of the program, nearly 4.5 million braceros migrated primarily to the American Southwest in search of farm jobs.
Transcripts from California vs. Gus Zammora, et al. (a.k.a. Sleepy Lagoon Case), 1943-1945
On August 2, 1942, the body of a young Mexican American named Jose Diaz was found in Sleepy Lagoon – a reservoir of the Los Angeles River that was used as a swimming hole by Mexican Americans who were not allowed in public pools. The mystery was sensationalized in the press and Mexican Americans were openly blamed for Diaz’s death. Mass hysteria ensued, and several hundred Mexican Americans were arrested on suspicion of murder. Ultimately, twenty-four were indicted for murder. Seventeen were convicted of various charges and sent to jail, even though it was never proven that Jose Diaz was actually murdered or whether those convicted had been at the scene of the alleged crime. The case was overturned two years later, but not before sparking the infamous Zoot Suit Riots in Los Angeles.
Mendez et al. vs. Westminster School District of Orange County et al., 1946
At the time of this federal trial, Mexican Americans were as heavily segregated and discriminated against in California as African Americans were in the Jim Crow south. In California schools, American citizens of Latino descent were instructed in separate classrooms from their Anglo counterparts. Even though the Mexican educational facilities and the caliber of the instruction were usually as good as the white-only schools, the court ruled that de facto segregation on the basis of national origin was unconstitutional. This case inspired a similar ruling in Texas, 1948’s Delgado vs. Bastrop Independent School District, and was a precursor of the Supreme Court’s Brown vs. Board of Education case in 1954.
Hernandez vs. Texas, 1954 (PDF document)
This case challenged the Texas judicial system practice of systematically excluding qualified Mexican Americans form jury pools, thereby taking away Latino defendants’ rights to be tried by a jury of their peers. Pete Hernandez was tried and convicted of murder and was sentenced to life imprisonment, but there was never a Hispanic on the jury panel. The Supreme Court overturned Hernandez’s conviction and ruled that his rights under the Fourteenth Amendment had been violated. Although this case was overshadowed by the Brown vs. Board of Education case, it has had a substantial impact on civil rights for Latinos and other minority groups.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
This landmark piece of legislation outlawed segregation and discrimination at the voting booth, at public places, in public education, in employment on the basis of race, color, religion, gender, or national origin.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
This landmark legislation made it illegal to prevent someone from voting on the basis of his or her race or national origin. It also outlawed the use of literacy tests that were often used to disqualify eligible voters from casting votes. The law was intended to protect the voting rights of African Americans in the Jim Crow South, but many Latinos throughout the country faced the same types of discrimination.
Cuban Adjustment Act, November 2, 1966
The Cuban Revolution and the overthrow of Fulgencio Batista by Fidel Castro in 1959 prompted a mass exodus of Cubans to the United States. This legislation stated that all Cubans who come to the United States could claim political asylum. After Cuban refugees have been living in the United States for more than a year, they can have their status adjusted to that of legal resident. The legislation remains in effect to this day.
Fair Housing Act of 1968
This landmark legislation was a boon for Latinos who frequently faced housing discrimination. This law made it illegal to refuse the sale or rental of housing on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, family status (the size of the family or whether there are children in the home), disability, or national origin.
Voting Rights Act of 1973: Bilingual Election Requirements
The 1973 amendment to the Voting Rights Act included a provision to require ballots and voting instructions in languages other than English. This legislation was inspired in part by the plight of Puerto Ricans living in the United States: They were U.S. citizens but had limited proficiency in English. The 1992 Voting Rights Language Assistance Act extended the minority language provision through 2007. This legislation is applicable in jurisdictions where more than 5 percent of the population is non-English speaking.
Proclamation 4459 – National Hispanic Heritage Week, September 10, 1976
President Gerald Ford designated the week including September 15 and 16 as National Hispanic Heritage Week. He paid tribute to the long history that Latinos have had in the United States and cited the numerous contributions that Latinos have made to the nation.
Refugee Act of 1980
This act was prompted by the Mariel Boatlifts between April and September of 1980. Fidel Castro allowed people who wanted to leave Cuba to claim asylum at the Peruvian embassy in Cuba. Cuba granted exit visas to 125,000 Cubans, including many who were either criminals, political prisoners, or mentally ill. Cuban Americans living in Florida organized a fleet of boats to pick up the Cuban exiles at Mariel Harbor. The Refugee Act of 1980 delineated a strategy for the successful resettlement of refugees in the United States.
James Plyler, Superintendent, Tyler Independent School District, et al. vs. John Doe, et al., 1982
This Supreme Court case overturned a Texas law that denied public school education to children who had been brought into the United States illegally. The Texas legislature had hoped to stem the tide of illegal Mexican immigration into its state by the passage of this law, requiring all children who were not legal immigrants to the United States to pay tuition for a public education. The Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment extended to all individuals, regardless of their legal or illegal status. Furthermore, the Court ruled that the children that were affected by this Texas law could not help their illegal status nor be held responsible for their parents’ actions, and that not receiving a public education could cause irreparable harm to the children and society.
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
This law was created primarily in an effort to clamp down on massive illegal immigration from Mexico. By the late 1970s, the United States was apprehending more than one million undocumented people annually. The act made it illegal to hire undocumented workers, and imposed stiff penalties on those who knowingly employed illegal immigrants. The bill also instituted an amnesty program: illegal immigrants who had been living in the United States since before January 1, 1982, could gain residency after a specified period of time. The act created the H-2A program to deal with illegal farm workers. Under H-2A, farm workers who had been living in the United States for the past three years could eventually become permanent U.S. residents if they agreed to continue to work in agriculture for another year.
Proclamation 6337 – National Hispanic Heritage Month, September 20, 1990
President George Bush declares the period of September 15 through October 15 as National Hispanic Heritage Month, a significant expansion of the National Hispanic Heritage Week, which was promoted by past presidents.
Nicaraguan Adjustment and Central American Relief Act of 1997: Title II of Public Law 105-100 (PDF document, pages 35-43)
NACARA granted undocumented Nicaraguans and Cubans living in the United States since December 1, 1995, permanent residency. In addition, undocumented Guatemalans, Hondurans, and Salvadorians received limited concessions. This law was in response to the social upheaval many Latin American countries were facing during the time and reflected U.S. concerns over communist movements in Latin America.
Proposition 227, 1998
This initiative passed in California in 1998, despite heavy opposition by Latinos who felt they were unfairly targeted by it. It outlawed bilingual education in California. Children who were not proficient in English would be placed in an immersion program for one year before transitioning to English-only classes. Similar measures were passed in Massachusetts and Arizona after California’s initiative passed. A recent five-year study of Proposition 227 by the American Institutes for Research shows that English immersion is neither better nor worse than bilingual education, and that Proposition 227 has not necessarily had the intended effects it promised.
Maps
Map of the United States and Mexico, 1839
This shows the territories of the United States and Mexico before Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah were ceded to the United States in 1848. At the time this map was published, Texas has already won its independence from Mexico, but it would not officially join the United States until 1845. Texas’ northern and eastern borders are shaded in pink, however its southern and western borders were still in dispute by 1839.
Goff's historical map of the Spanish-American War in the West Indies, 1898
Created in 1899 by Eugenia A. W. Goff, this highly detailed map depicts the theater of the Spanish-American War of 1898, which was primarily southern Florida, Puerto Rico, and Cuba. It provides dates and brief descriptions of key events. The map also tracks military movements, victories, and defeats.
2000 Census Maps of US Hispanic Population (PDF document)
This series of maps provides a glimpse into the current Latino demographic. The state with the largest number of Latinos is California. The states with the fastest growing Latino population are Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Nevada, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee.